Uhuru was the first satellite launched specifically for the purpose of X-ray astronomy. It was also known as the X-ray Explorer Satellite, SAS-A (for Small Astronomy Satellite A, being first of the three-spacecraft SAS series), SAS 1, or Explorer 42. The observatory was launched on December 12, 1970 into an initial orbit of about 560 km apogee, 520 km perigee, 3 degrees inclination, with a period of 96 minutes. The mission ended in March 1973. Uhuru was a scanning mission, with a spin period of ~12 minutes. It performed the first comprehensive survey of the entire sky for X-ray sources, with a sensitivity of about 0.001 times the intensity of the Crab nebula.
![]() Uhuru (X-ray Explorer Satellite) | |
Mission type | Astronomy |
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Operator | NASA |
COSPAR ID | 1970-107A ![]() |
SATCAT no. | 4797 |
Website | heasarc |
Mission duration | 3 years |
Spacecraft properties | |
Dry mass | 141.5 kilograms (312 lb) |
Start of mission | |
Launch date | December 12, 1970, 10:53:50 (1970-12-12UTC10:53:50Z) UTC |
Rocket | Scout B S175C |
Launch site | San Marco |
End of mission | |
Last contact | March 1973 (1973-04) |
Decay date | April 5, 1979 |
Orbital parameters | |
Reference system | Geocentric |
Regime | Low Earth |
Eccentricity | 0.002956 |
Perigee altitude | 520.0 kilometers (323.1 mi) |
Apogee altitude | 560.0 kilometers (348.0 mi) |
Inclination | 3.0 degrees |
Period | 95.70 minutes |
Epoch | December 12, 1970, 05:54:00 UTC[1] |
Instruments | |
All-Sky X-Ray Survey | |
Explorers |
The main objectives of the mission were:[2]
The payload consisted of two sets of proportional counters, each with ~0.084 m2 effective area. The counters were sensitive with more than 10% efficiency to X-ray photons in the ~2–20 keV range. The lower energy limit was determined by the attenuation of the beryllium windows of the counter plus a thin thermal shroud that was needed to maintain temperature stability of the spacecraft. The upper energy limit was determined by the transmission properties of the counter filling gas. Pulse-shape discrimination and anticoincidence techniques were used to filter out emissions of particles and undesirable high-energy photons in the background. Pulse-height analysis in eight energy channels was used to obtain information on the energy spectrum of the incident photons. The two sets of counters were placed back to back and were collimated to 0.52° × 0.52° and 5.2° × 5.2° (full width at half maximum) respectively. While the 0.52° detector gave finer angular resolution, the 5.2° detector had higher sensitivity for isolated sources.[2]
Uhuru achieved several outstanding scientific advances, including the discovery and detailed study of the pulsing accretion-powered binary X-Ray sources such as Cen X-3, Vela X-1, and Her X-1, the identification of Cygnus X-1, the first strong candidate for an astrophysical black hole, and many important extragalactic sources. The Uhuru Catalog, issued in four successive versions, the last being the 4U catalog, was the first comprehensive X-ray catalog, contains 339 objects and covers the whole sky in the 2–6 keV band.[3] The final version of the source catalog is known as the 4U Catalog;[4] earlier versions were the 2U and 3U catalogs. Sources are referenced as, e.g., "4U 1700-37".
The satellite's name, "Uhuru", is the Swahili word for "freedom". It was named in recognition of the hospitality of Kenya from where it was launched, from the Italian San Marco launch platform near Mombasa.
Explorers Program | |||
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List of Explorers Program missions | |||
Missions | ![]() | ||
Proposals |
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Space observatories | |
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Operating |
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Planned |
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Proposed |
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Retired |
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Hibernating (Mission completed) | |
Lost/Failed |
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Cancelled | |
Related |
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← 1969 · Orbital launches in 1970 · 1971 → | |
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Kosmos 318 | OPS 6531 | Intelsat III F-6 | Kosmos 319 | Kosmos 320 | Kosmos 321 | Kosmos 322 | ITOS-1 · Australis-OSCAR 5 | DS-P1-I No.6 | SERT-2 | E-8-5 No.405 | Kosmos 323 | Ohsumi | OPS 0054 | Molniya-1 No.17 | Kosmos 324 | Kosmos 325 | OPS 0440 · OPS 3402 | Wika · Mika | Kosmos 326 | Meteor No.14 | Kosmos 327 | NATO 2A | Kosmos 328 | Kosmos 329 | Kosmos 330 | Nimbus 4 · Topo-1 | Kosmos 331 | OPS 7033 · OPS 7044 | Kosmos 332 | Apollo 13 | Kosmos 333 | OPS 2863 | Intelsat III F-7 | Kosmos 334 | Dong Fang Hong 1 | Kosmos 335 | Kosmos 336 · Kosmos 337 · Kosmos 338 · Kosmos 339 · Kosmos 340 · Kosmos 341 · Kosmos 342 · Kosmos 343 | Meteor No.13 | Kosmos 344 | Kosmos 345 | OPS 4720 · OPS 8520 | DS-P1-Yu No.36 | Soyuz 9 | Kosmos 346 | STV-3 | Kosmos 347 | Kosmos 348 | Kosmos 349 | OPS 5346 | Meteor-M No.17 | OPS 6820 | Molniya-1 No.21 | Kosmos 350 | Kosmos 351 | Unnamed | Kosmos 352 | Kosmos 353 | Zenit-4 No.75 | OPS 4324 | Intelsat III F-8 | Kosmos 354 | Interkosmos 3 | Kosmos 355 | Kosmos 356 | Venera 7 | OPS 7874 | Skynet 1B | Kosmos 357 | Kosmos 358 | Kosmos 359 · Kosmos 359 | OPS 8329 | Transit O-19 | Kosmos 360 | OPS 7329 | Orba · X-2 | OPS 0203 | Kosmos 361 | Luna 16 | Kosmos 362 | Kosmos 363 | Kosmos 364 | MS-F1 | Kosmos 365 | Molniya-1 No.19 | Kosmos 366 | Kosmos 367 | Kosmos 368 · Nauka No.3 | Kosmos 369 | Kosmos 370 | Kosmos 371 | Interkosmos 4 | Meteor-M No.16 | Kosmos 372 | Kosmos 373 | Zond 8 | Kosmos 374 | OPS 7568 | Kosmos 375 | Kosmos 376 | OPS 5960 | OFO · RM-1 | Luna 17 (Lunokhod 1) | Kosmos 377 | Kosmos 378 | OPS 4992 · OPS 6829 | Kosmos 379 | Kosmos 380 | Molniya-1 No.23 | OAO-B | Kosmos 381 | Kosmos 382 | Kosmos 383 | Kosmos 384 · Nauka No.2 | NOAA-1 · CEPI | Uhuru | Kosmos 385 | Peole | Kosmos 386 | Kosmos 387 | Kosmos 388 | Kosmos 389 | DS-P1-M No.1 | Molniya-1 No.22 | |
Payloads are separated by bullets ( · ), launches by pipes ( | ). Crewed flights are indicated in underline. Uncatalogued launch failures are listed in italics. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are denoted in (brackets). |